Survey on Immigrants' Living Conditions and Employment (2/2)
KOSIS調査「Survey on Immigrants' Living Conditions and Employment」の3統計表・139項目を、年次の数値とグラフで見ます。
한국 이외 체류 경험 유무 및 체류기간(지난 1년간, 이민자)
先頭に戻る대상별 외국인 · 특성별 성별
- Experienced abroad
- Experienced abroad
- Male Experienced abroad
- Female Experienced abroad
- Non-professional employment(E-9) Experienced abroad
- Work and visit(H-2) Experienced abroad
- Professional staff(E-1~E-7) Experienced abroad
- Student(D-2 D-4-1 D-4-7) Experienced abroad
- Overseas Korean(F-4) Experienced abroad
- Permanent resident(F-5) Experienced abroad
- Marriage migrant(F-2-1 F-6) Experienced abroad
- Others Experienced abroad
- - Less than 1 month
- - Less than 1 month
- Male - Less than 1 month
- Female - Less than 1 month
- Non-professional employment(E-9) - Less than 1 month
- Work and visit(H-2) - Less than 1 month
- Professional staff(E-1~E-7) - Less than 1 month
- Student(D-2 D-4-1 D-4-7) - Less than 1 month
- Overseas Korean(F-4) - Less than 1 month
- Permanent resident(F-5) - Less than 1 month
- Marriage migrant(F-2-1 F-6) - Less than 1 month
- Others - Less than 1 month
- - 1 month or more - less than 3 months
- - 1 month or more - less than 3 months
- Male - 1 month or more - less than 3 months
- Female - 1 month or more - less than 3 months
- Non-professional employment(E-9) - 1 month or more - less than 3 months
- Work and visit(H-2) - 1 month or more - less than 3 months
- Professional staff(E-1~E-7) - 1 month or more - less than 3 months
- Student(D-2 D-4-1 D-4-7) - 1 month or more - less than 3 months
- Overseas Korean(F-4) - 1 month or more - less than 3 months
- Permanent resident(F-5) - 1 month or more - less than 3 months
- Marriage migrant(F-2-1 F-6) - 1 month or more - less than 3 months
- Others - 1 month or more - less than 3 months
- - 3 months or more - less than 6 months
- - 3 months or more - less than 6 months
- Male - 3 months or more - less than 6 months
- Female - 3 months or more - less than 6 months
- Non-professional employment(E-9) - 3 months or more - less than 6 months
- Work and visit(H-2) - 3 months or more - less than 6 months
- Professional staff(E-1~E-7) - 3 months or more - less than 6 months
- Student(D-2 D-4-1 D-4-7) - 3 months or more - less than 6 months
- Overseas Korean(F-4) - 3 months or more - less than 6 months
- Permanent resident(F-5) - 3 months or more - less than 6 months
- Marriage migrant(F-2-1 F-6) - 3 months or more - less than 6 months
- Others - 3 months or more - less than 6 months
- - 6 months or more - less than 1 year
- - 6 months or more - less than 1 year
- Male - 6 months or more - less than 1 year
- Female - 6 months or more - less than 1 year
- Non-professional employment(E-9) - 6 months or more - less than 1 year
- Work and visit(H-2) - 6 months or more - less than 1 year
- Professional staff(E-1~E-7) - 6 months or more - less than 1 year
- Student(D-2 D-4-1 D-4-7) - 6 months or more - less than 1 year
- Overseas Korean(F-4) - 6 months or more - less than 1 year
- Permanent resident(F-5) - 6 months or more - less than 1 year
- Marriage migrant(F-2-1 F-6) - 6 months or more - less than 1 year
- Others - 6 months or more - less than 1 year
Experienced abroad
2013 21.5Percent→2025 20.1Percent▼ −6.5%
Experienced abroad
2013 21.5Percent→2025 20.1Percent▼ −6.5%
Male Experienced abroad
2013 19.8Percent→2025 18.2Percent▼ −8.1%
Female Experienced abroad
2013 23.7Percent→2025 22.7Percent▼ −4.2%
Non-professional employment(E-9) Experienced abroad
2013 8.3Percent→2025 11.5Percent▲ +38.6%
Work and visit(H-2) Experienced abroad
2013 25.3Percent→2025 26.6Percent▲ +5.1%
Professional staff(E-1~E-7) Experienced abroad
2013 29.7Percent→2025 17.8Percent▼ −40.1%
Student(D-2 D-4-1 D-4-7) Experienced abroad
2013 29.8Percent→2025 19.1Percent▼ −35.9%
Overseas Korean(F-4) Experienced abroad
2013 27.8Percent→2025 22.3Percent▼ −19.8%
Permanent resident(F-5) Experienced abroad
2013 23.9Percent→2025 25.1Percent▲ +5.0%
Marriage migrant(F-2-1 F-6) Experienced abroad
2013 21.4Percent→2025 24Percent▲ +12.1%
Others Experienced abroad
2013 22.2Percent→2025 21.7Percent▼ −2.3%
- Less than 1 month
2013 10Percent→2025 12Percent▲ +20.0%
- Less than 1 month
2013 10Percent→2025 12Percent▲ +20.0%
Male - Less than 1 month
2013 9.4Percent→2025 10.7Percent▲ +13.8%
Female - Less than 1 month
2013 10.9Percent→2025 13.8Percent▲ +26.6%
Non-professional employment(E-9) - Less than 1 month
2013 4.3Percent→2025 6Percent▲ +39.5%
Work and visit(H-2) - Less than 1 month
2013 11Percent→2025 12.3Percent▲ +11.8%
Professional staff(E-1~E-7) - Less than 1 month
2013 19.6Percent→2025 11.3Percent▼ −42.3%
Student(D-2 D-4-1 D-4-7) - Less than 1 month
2013 10.1Percent→2025 10.3Percent▲ +2.0%
Overseas Korean(F-4) - Less than 1 month
2013 12.1Percent→2025 13.6Percent▲ +12.4%
Permanent resident(F-5) - Less than 1 month
2013 12.2Percent→2025 18.9Percent▲ +54.9%
Marriage migrant(F-2-1 F-6) - Less than 1 month
2013 12.3Percent→2025 17.3Percent▲ +40.7%
Others - Less than 1 month
2013 9Percent→2025 11.9Percent▲ +32.2%
- 1 month or more - less than 3 months
2013 7.1Percent→2025 5.1Percent▼ −28.2%
- 1 month or more - less than 3 months
2013 7.1Percent→2025 5.1Percent▼ −28.2%
Male - 1 month or more - less than 3 months
2013 6.7Percent→2025 5Percent▼ −25.4%
Female - 1 month or more - less than 3 months
2013 7.5Percent→2025 5.3Percent▼ −29.3%
Non-professional employment(E-9) - 1 month or more - less than 3 months
2013 2.9Percent→2025 4.4Percent▲ +51.7%
Work and visit(H-2) - 1 month or more - less than 3 months
2013 8.6Percent→2025 6.4Percent▼ −25.6%
Professional staff(E-1~E-7) - 1 month or more - less than 3 months
2013 8.8Percent→2025 5.4Percent▼ −38.6%
Student(D-2 D-4-1 D-4-7) - 1 month or more - less than 3 months
2013 16.8Percent→2025 6.2Percent▼ −63.1%
Overseas Korean(F-4) - 1 month or more - less than 3 months
2013 7.8Percent→2025 4.7Percent▼ −39.7%
Permanent resident(F-5) - 1 month or more - less than 3 months
2013 6.8Percent→2025 4.1Percent▼ −39.7%
Marriage migrant(F-2-1 F-6) - 1 month or more - less than 3 months
2013 4.8Percent→2025 4.4Percent▼ −8.3%
Others - 1 month or more - less than 3 months
2013 7.1Percent→2025 6.3Percent▼ −11.3%
- 3 months or more - less than 6 months
2013 2.8Percent→2025 1.8Percent▼ −35.7%
- 3 months or more - less than 6 months
2013 2.8Percent→2025 1.8Percent▼ −35.7%
Male - 3 months or more - less than 6 months
2013 2.2Percent→2025 1.6Percent▼ −27.3%
Female - 3 months or more - less than 6 months
2013 3.4Percent→2025 2.1Percent▼ −38.2%
Non-professional employment(E-9) - 3 months or more - less than 6 months
2013 0.6Percent→2025 0.7Percent▲ +16.7%
Work and visit(H-2) - 3 months or more - less than 6 months
2013 3.6Percent→2025 5.8Percent▲ +61.1%
Professional staff(E-1~E-7) - 3 months or more - less than 6 months
2013 1.2Percent→2025 0.9Percent▼ −25.0%
Student(D-2 D-4-1 D-4-7) - 3 months or more - less than 6 months
2013 2.4Percent→2025 1.9Percent▼ −20.8%
Overseas Korean(F-4) - 3 months or more - less than 6 months
2013 4.5Percent→2025 2Percent▼ −55.6%
Permanent resident(F-5) - 3 months or more - less than 6 months
2013 2.9Percent→2025 1Percent▼ −65.5%
Marriage migrant(F-2-1 F-6) - 3 months or more - less than 6 months
2013 3.1Percent→2025 1.5Percent▼ −51.6%
Others - 3 months or more - less than 6 months
2013 3.7Percent→2025 2.8Percent▼ −24.3%
- 6 months or more - less than 1 year
2013 1.6Percent→2025 1.1Percent▼ −31.2%
- 6 months or more - less than 1 year
2013 1.6Percent→2025 1.1Percent▼ −31.2%
Male - 6 months or more - less than 1 year
2013 1.5Percent→2025 0.9Percent▼ −40.0%
Female - 6 months or more - less than 1 year
2013 1.8Percent→2025 1.4Percent▼ −22.2%
Non-professional employment(E-9) - 6 months or more - less than 1 year
2013 0.4Percent→2025 0.6Percent▲ +50.0%
Work and visit(H-2) - 6 months or more - less than 1 year
2013 2.1Percent→2025 2.2Percent▲ +4.8%
Professional staff(E-1~E-7) - 6 months or more - less than 1 year
2013 0.1Percent→2025 0.2Percent▲ +100.0%
Student(D-2 D-4-1 D-4-7) - 6 months or more - less than 1 year
2013 0.5Percent→2025 0.7Percent▲ +40.0%
Overseas Korean(F-4) - 6 months or more - less than 1 year
2013 3.4Percent→2025 2Percent▼ −41.2%
Permanent resident(F-5) - 6 months or more - less than 1 year
2013 1.9Percent→2025 1.1Percent▼ −42.1%
Marriage migrant(F-2-1 F-6) - 6 months or more - less than 1 year
2013 1.3Percent→2025 0.9Percent▼ −30.8%
Others - 6 months or more - less than 1 year
2013 2.4Percent→2025 0.8Percent▼ −66.7%
체류자격 변경 유무 및 변경 횟수(이민자)
先頭に戻る대상별 외국인 · 특성별 성별
- Changed (acquired Korean citizenship)
- Changed (acquired Korean citizenship)
- Male Changed (acquired Korean citizenship)
- Female Changed (acquired Korean citizenship)
- Non-professional employment(E-9) Changed (acquired Korean citizenship)
- Work and visit(H-2) Changed (acquired Korean citizenship)
- Professional staff(E-1~E-7) Changed (acquired Korean citizenship)
- Student(D-2 D-4-1 D-4-7) Changed (acquired Korean citizenship)
- Overseas Korean(F-4) Changed (acquired Korean citizenship)
- Permanent resident(F-5) Changed (acquired Korean citizenship)
- Marriage migrant(F-2-1 F-6) Changed (acquired Korean citizenship)
- Others Changed (acquired Korean citizenship)
- No change
- No change
- Male No change
- Female No change
- Non-professional employment(E-9) No change
- Work and visit(H-2) No change
- Professional staff(E-1~E-7) No change
- Student(D-2 D-4-1 D-4-7) No change
- Overseas Korean(F-4) No change
- Permanent resident(F-5) No change
- Marriage migrant(F-2-1 F-6) No change
- Others No change
Changed (acquired Korean citizenship)
2012 13.7Percent→2025 43.8Percent▲ +219.7%
Changed (acquired Korean citizenship)
2012 13.7Percent→2025 43.8Percent▲ +219.7%
Male Changed (acquired Korean citizenship)
2012 11.9Percent→2025 39.3Percent▲ +230.3%
Female Changed (acquired Korean citizenship)
2012 16.3Percent→2025 50Percent▲ +206.7%
Non-professional employment(E-9) Changed (acquired Korean citizenship)
2012 0.4Percent→2025 0.1Percent▼ −75.0%
Work and visit(H-2) Changed (acquired Korean citizenship)
2012 8.5Percent→2025 11Percent▲ +29.4%
Professional staff(E-1~E-7) Changed (acquired Korean citizenship)
2012 4.2Percent→2025 53.3Percent▲ +1169.0%
Student(D-2 D-4-1 D-4-7) Changed (acquired Korean citizenship)
2012 12.1Percent→2025 45Percent▲ +271.9%
Overseas Korean(F-4) Changed (acquired Korean citizenship)
2012 31.7Percent→2025 64.7Percent▲ +104.1%
Permanent resident(F-5) Changed (acquired Korean citizenship)
2012 48.3Percent→2025 99.3Percent▲ +105.6%
Marriage migrant(F-2-1 F-6) Changed (acquired Korean citizenship)
2012 19.4Percent→2025 47.8Percent▲ +146.4%
Others Changed (acquired Korean citizenship)
2012 13Percent→2025 34.1Percent▲ +162.3%
No change
2012 86.3Percent→2025 56.2Percent▼ −34.9%
No change
2012 86.3Percent→2025 56.2Percent▼ −34.9%
Male No change
2012 88.1Percent→2025 60.7Percent▼ −31.1%
Female No change
2012 83.7Percent→2025 50Percent▼ −40.3%
Non-professional employment(E-9) No change
2012 99.6Percent→2025 99.9Percent▲ +0.3%
Work and visit(H-2) No change
2012 91.5Percent→2025 88.9Percent▼ −2.8%
Professional staff(E-1~E-7) No change
2012 95.8Percent→2025 46.7Percent▼ −51.3%
Student(D-2 D-4-1 D-4-7) No change
2012 87.9Percent→2025 55Percent▼ −37.4%
Overseas Korean(F-4) No change
2012 68.3Percent→2025 35.3Percent▼ −48.3%
Permanent resident(F-5) No change
2012 51.7Percent→2025 0.7Percent▼ −98.6%
Marriage migrant(F-2-1 F-6) No change
2012 80.6Percent→2025 52.3Percent▼ −35.1%
Others No change
2012 87Percent→2025 65.9Percent▼ −24.3%
체류기간 만료 후 한국 내 계속 체류 희망 여부 및 체류연장방법(영주권자 이외 외국인)
先頭に戻る특성별 성별
- Wish to stay continuously
- Wish to stay continuously
- Male Wish to stay continuously
- Female Wish to stay continuously
- Non-professional employment(E-9) Wish to stay continuously
- Work and visit(H-2) Wish to stay continuously
- Professional staff(E-1~E-7) Wish to stay continuously
- Student(D-2 D-4-1 D-4-7) Wish to stay continuously
- Overseas Korean(F-4) Wish to stay continuously
- Marriage migrant(F-2-1 F-6) Wish to stay continuously
- Others Wish to stay continuously
- - Extension of stay
- - Extension of stay
- Male - Extension of stay
- Female - Extension of stay
- Non-professional employment(E-9) - Extension of stay
- Work and visit(H-2) - Extension of stay
- Professional staff(E-1~E-7) - Extension of stay
- Student(D-2 D-4-1 D-4-7) - Extension of stay
- Overseas Korean(F-4) - Extension of stay
- Marriage migrant(F-2-1 F-6) - Extension of stay
- Others - Extension of stay
- - Change status of sojourn
- - Change status of sojourn
- Male - Change status of sojourn
- Female - Change status of sojourn
- Non-professional employment(E-9) - Change status of sojourn
- Work and visit(H-2) - Change status of sojourn
- Professional staff(E-1~E-7) - Change status of sojourn
- Student(D-2 D-4-1 D-4-7) - Change status of sojourn
- Overseas Korean(F-4) - Change status of sojourn
- Marriage migrant(F-2-1 F-6) - Change status of sojourn
- Others - Change status of sojourn
- - Obtain permanent residency
- - Obtain permanent residency
- Male - Obtain permanent residency
- Female - Obtain permanent residency
- Non-professional employment(E-9) - Obtain permanent residency
- Work and visit(H-2) - Obtain permanent residency
- Professional staff(E-1~E-7) - Obtain permanent residency
- Student(D-2 D-4-1 D-4-7) - Obtain permanent residency
- Overseas Korean(F-4) - Obtain permanent residency
- Marriage migrant(F-2-1 F-6) - Obtain permanent residency
- Others - Obtain permanent residency
- - Acquire Korean citizenship
- - Acquire Korean citizenship
- Male - Acquire Korean citizenship
- Female - Acquire Korean citizenship
- Non-professional employment(E-9) - Acquire Korean citizenship
- Work and visit(H-2) - Acquire Korean citizenship
- Professional staff(E-1~E-7) - Acquire Korean citizenship
- Student(D-2 D-4-1 D-4-7) - Acquire Korean citizenship
- Overseas Korean(F-4) - Acquire Korean citizenship
- Marriage migrant(F-2-1 F-6) - Acquire Korean citizenship
- Others - Acquire Korean citizenship
Wish to stay continuously
2012 84.3Percent→2025 89.8Percent▲ +6.5%
Wish to stay continuously
2012 84.3Percent→2025 89.8Percent▲ +6.5%
Male Wish to stay continuously
2012 82.5Percent→2025 89.2Percent▲ +8.1%
Female Wish to stay continuously
2012 86.7Percent→2025 90.6Percent▲ +4.5%
Non-professional employment(E-9) Wish to stay continuously
2012 79.2Percent→2025 86.9Percent▲ +9.7%
Work and visit(H-2) Wish to stay continuously
2012 92.3Percent→2025 94.5Percent▲ +2.4%
Professional staff(E-1~E-7) Wish to stay continuously
2012 68.3Percent→2025 91.8Percent▲ +34.4%
Student(D-2 D-4-1 D-4-7) Wish to stay continuously
2012 63.7Percent→2025 77.5Percent▲ +21.7%
Overseas Korean(F-4) Wish to stay continuously
2012 88Percent→2025 95.7Percent▲ +8.8%
Marriage migrant(F-2-1 F-6) Wish to stay continuously
2012 97.6Percent→2025 99.1Percent▲ +1.5%
Others Wish to stay continuously
2012 76.1Percent→2025 88.6Percent▲ +16.4%
- Extension of stay
2012 50.1Percent→2025 54.3Percent▲ +8.4%
- Extension of stay
2012 50.1Percent→2025 54.3Percent▲ +8.4%
Male - Extension of stay
2012 57.1Percent→2025 59Percent▲ +3.3%
Female - Extension of stay
2012 40.3Percent→2025 47.7Percent▲ +18.4%
Non-professional employment(E-9) - Extension of stay
2012 72Percent→2025 70.2Percent▼ −2.5%
Work and visit(H-2) - Extension of stay
2012 45.6Percent→2025 45.3Percent▼ −0.7%
Professional staff(E-1~E-7) - Extension of stay
2012 59Percent→2025 65.4Percent▲ +10.8%
Student(D-2 D-4-1 D-4-7) - Extension of stay
2012 48Percent→2025 50.2Percent▲ +4.6%
Overseas Korean(F-4) - Extension of stay
2012 50.1Percent→2025 50.4Percent▲ +0.6%
Marriage migrant(F-2-1 F-6) - Extension of stay
2012 17.5Percent→2025 29Percent▲ +65.7%
Others - Extension of stay
2012 44Percent→2025 55.9Percent▲ +27.0%
- Change status of sojourn
2012 5.9Percent→2025 10.9Percent▲ +84.7%
- Change status of sojourn
2012 5.9Percent→2025 10.9Percent▲ +84.7%
Male - Change status of sojourn
2012 5.7Percent→2025 11.6Percent▲ +103.5%
Female - Change status of sojourn
2012 6.1Percent→2025 10Percent▲ +63.9%
Non-professional employment(E-9) - Change status of sojourn
2012 3.3Percent→2025 11.4Percent▲ +245.5%
Work and visit(H-2) - Change status of sojourn
2012 10.8Percent→2025 22.7Percent▲ +110.2%
Professional staff(E-1~E-7) - Change status of sojourn
2012 2.1Percent→2025 12.7Percent▲ +504.8%
Student(D-2 D-4-1 D-4-7) - Change status of sojourn
2012 10.7Percent→2025 15.7Percent▲ +46.7%
Overseas Korean(F-4) - Change status of sojourn
2012 3.7Percent→2025 5.4Percent▲ +45.9%
Marriage migrant(F-2-1 F-6) - Change status of sojourn
2012 1.8Percent→2025 4.9Percent▲ +172.2%
Others - Change status of sojourn
2012 4.7Percent→2025 13.5Percent▲ +187.2%
- Obtain permanent residency
2012 16.6Percent→2025 15.5Percent▼ −6.6%
- Obtain permanent residency
2012 16.6Percent→2025 15.5Percent▼ −6.6%
Male - Obtain permanent residency
2012 14.2Percent→2025 13.5Percent▼ −4.9%
Female - Obtain permanent residency
2012 20Percent→2025 18.3Percent▼ −8.5%
Non-professional employment(E-9) - Obtain permanent residency
2012 2.3Percent→2025 3.8Percent▲ +65.2%
Work and visit(H-2) - Obtain permanent residency
2012 28.7Percent→2025 21Percent▼ −26.8%
Professional staff(E-1~E-7) - Obtain permanent residency
2012 5.9Percent→2025 9.9Percent▲ +67.8%
Student(D-2 D-4-1 D-4-7) - Obtain permanent residency
2012 3.9Percent→2025 9.3Percent▲ +138.5%
Overseas Korean(F-4) - Obtain permanent residency
2012 25.3Percent→2025 28.8Percent▲ +13.8%
Marriage migrant(F-2-1 F-6) - Obtain permanent residency
2012 24.5Percent→2025 18.5Percent▼ −24.5%
Others - Obtain permanent residency
2012 13.9Percent→2025 13.3Percent▼ −4.3%
- Acquire Korean citizenship
2012 11.2Percent→2025 9.1Percent▼ −18.8%
- Acquire Korean citizenship
2012 11.2Percent→2025 9.1Percent▼ −18.8%
Male - Acquire Korean citizenship
2012 4.9Percent→2025 5.1Percent▲ +4.1%
Female - Acquire Korean citizenship
2012 20Percent→2025 14.6Percent▼ −27.0%
Non-professional employment(E-9) - Acquire Korean citizenship
2012 1.5Percent→2025 1.4Percent▼ −6.7%
Work and visit(H-2) - Acquire Korean citizenship
2012 6.4Percent→2025 5.6Percent▼ −12.5%
Professional staff(E-1~E-7) - Acquire Korean citizenship
2012 1.1Percent→2025 4Percent▲ +263.6%
Student(D-2 D-4-1 D-4-7) - Acquire Korean citizenship
2012 0.8Percent→2025 2.3Percent▲ +187.5%
Overseas Korean(F-4) - Acquire Korean citizenship
2012 8.1Percent→2025 11.1Percent▲ +37.0%
Marriage migrant(F-2-1 F-6) - Acquire Korean citizenship
2012 53.7Percent→2025 46.6Percent▼ −13.2%
Others - Acquire Korean citizenship
2012 13.3Percent→2025 5.8Percent▼ −56.4%
この統計について
Survey on Immigrants' Living Conditions and Employment· 조사원→지방청(사무소)→국가데이터처(고용통계과), 법무부(외국인정책과)
- 主な用語
- 귀화허가자 : 법무부장관의 귀화허가를 받아 한국 국적을 취득한 사람이민자 : 외국인과 귀화허가자를 통칭외국인 : 「출입국관리법」제2조제2호에서 대한민국의 국적을 가지지 아니한 사람으로 정의하며, 외국인은 체류자격과 체류기간의 범위 내에서 국내에 체류할 수 있음
- 何のために作るのか
- 1. 저출산·고령사회 진입에 따른 부족한 노동력의 국외유입으로 이들의 체류관리 및 사회통합 현황 파악 2. 체류 외국인 및 귀화허가자 실태 파악을 통해 체류관리 및 사회통합 등 이민자 관련 정책수립을 위한 기초 통계자료 구축
🔴 この説明は統計を作成した機関が自ら書いたものです。DATA CLOCK KOREA が解釈したり要約したりはしていません。 原文は韓国語です。翻訳すると「機関が書いた説明」ではなくなるため、そのまま掲載しています。
出典
- 機関
- 국가데이터처
- 統計表
- 경제활동인구 총괄(이민자)
- 提供
- KOSIS 국가통계포털
- 期間
- 2012 ~ 2025
- 取得日
- 2026-08-29
- 処理
- KOSIS OpenAPI 로 연간 전국값을 받아 그대로 사용. 가공 없음.